Overview of the topic and the literature review.

This Blog constitutes Assignment 1 in EML 509 for Holly Wright, student number 11358217.

Topic: The genre-based approach to literature, grammar and linguistics in an EAL/D and EFL setting.

The concept of genre has suffered from “variable and uncertain usage” (Swales, 1990, p. 1) since the very beginnings of literary theory. The term was first used by Aristotle to define three types of literary texts “poetry, novel, and drama (Kinneavy, 1971 in Deng, Chen and Zhang, 2014, p. 3)”; then by Derrida who, according to Frow (2004, p. 1627) both acknowledges the rigidity of genre boundaries and conversely decries the “madness of genre”. Todorov (1976 in Frow, 2004, p. 1627) defines genre in literary studies as “the codification of discursive properties”. Constant revision and re-imagination of what is meant by the term genre occurs across the fields of literature, linguistics and rhetoric, where it is regularly applied. The literature review will focus on a genre-based approach to teaching the English language. It will provide a theoretical framework and background for the concept of genre in the field of linguistics and outline the three main schools of thought for this approach. The rise of genre theory in Australia will be discussed, followed by instances of its application in Australia, Thailand and China. Its use in the classroom will be critically appraised and a personal statement will discuss how a genre-based approach would fit in with the author’s context in an Australian mainstream secondary English classroom.

1) Introduction to the grammatical theories

The field of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) was first outlined by Michael Halliday and his colleagues (Halliday 1994; Martin 1992 in White, Mammone & Caldwell, 2015, p. 259). Systemic Functional Linguistics rejects traditional, structural models of teaching grammar that are focused on rules and “correct or incorrect usage” (Kongpetch, 2003, p. 86), instead focussing on how language is used in society. “Language has evolved to satisfy human needs; and the way it is organised is functional with respect to those needs” (Halliday, 1994, p. xii). White et al. (2015, p. 259), summarise the ways that SFL describes meaning-making in language:

It understands language to provide three broad modes of meaning making:
(1) interpersonal meanings by which social roles, identities and relationships
are construed, (2) ideational meanings by which particular representations
of the experiential world are formulated and (3) textual meanings by which
these interpersonal and ideational meanings are managed and interrelated
in unfolding communicative events (texts).

SFL recognises that text evolves into some context. Central to this theory is the concept of the context of situation (Halliday, 2009 in Payaprom, 2012, pp. 11-12) which is defined in three areas. Field consists of who or what is involved and the circumstances surrounding the activity. Tenor comprises the interlocutors, their status and language choices and the mode entails the channel of communication being used, the symbols in any messages, how they are interpreted and how language choice is affected by these factors. The situational context which overrides all of these is called the register. The register is different in texts with different contexts (Payaprom, 2012, p. 12). Eggins (in Payaprom, 2012, p. 19) summarises these concepts in the diagram below.

SFL allows students to “predict the nature of language and the recurring linguistic pattern of language in a particular context” (Payaprom, 2012, p. 10). These textual patterns and conventions are the focus of the genre based approach.

The genre-based approach to grammar became popular in the Australian educational context from the late 1980s and it replaced “growth and process” methods that had previously been popular from the 1970s (Ahn, 2012, p. 3; Christie, 2013, p. 12; White et al., 2015, p. 258). It focuses on identifying specific “text types” (Christie, 2013, p. 14) that are common in the English classroom and the examination, dissection and composition of these genre based textual items (Frow, 2004, p. 1627). The genre-based approach focuses on using explicit instruction of texts and their conventions to aid students in constructing meaning that is relevant to the Australian cultural context (Ahn, 2012, p. 3). Knapp’s genre model (Knapp, 1992 in Knapp and Watkins, 2005, p. 27) defines the genres of describing, explaining, instructing, arguing and narrating which he asserts are “social processes” which in turn create “products” and “multi-generic products”.

As the theory developed different linguistic traditions adapted it in different ways. Hyon 2007 (in Ahn, 2012, p. 12) classifies the three schools of genre approaches in the table below.

 

2) Instances of the application of the genre-based approach.

The Genre-based approach was pioneered in Australia (White et al., 2015, p. 258) and its progress can now be documented into the field of English as a Foreign Language teaching systems in other countries. In the Australian context Derewianka (1992, p. 1), describes the type of language underpinning the syllabus as “functional” which “recognises the relationship between text and context”. This described the English K-6 Syllabus in 1992 but is still relevant to the Australian Curriculum brought in in 2014, which has been “strongly influenced by [SFL] precepts” (White et al., 2015, p. 258). Listed genres for Stage 4 and 5, in the secondary context, are “Fiction, Poetry, Film, Nonfiction, Drama” (Board of Studies, 2012, p. 25-26) as well as “spoken texts, print texts, visual texts, media, multimedia and digital texts” and other more specific text types such as “picture books and graphic novels” (p. 26). One fundamental Objective that applies from Early Stage 1 through the end of Stage 6 is “B. use language to shape and make meaning according to purpose, audience and context” (BOSTES, 2012, p. 15). This objective requires students to compose texts which adhere to the textual conventions of specific genres and to consider the context in which they read and write. Riley and Reedy (2000 in Deng, Chen and Zhang, 2014, p. 28) recognise that “the relationship between purpose, audience, and linguistic choice involved in the formation of any text… constitutes the centre of genre-based pedagogy”.

Kongpetch (2003) and Payaprom (2012), assess the applications of a genre-based approach in the Thai EFL context. Both studies note the dominance of a more traditional, structural approach to teaching English and recognise the need to enhance students’ experience of interacting with and experiencing texts that they will encounter in academic or other real world contexts. A downfall of the focus on structural grammar for Kongpetch (2003, p. x) is the focus on increasing students’ spoken proficiency at the expense of composing complex written texts. Payaprom (2012, p. viii) however, describes a vision for the genre-based approach to help students “develop an analytical appreciation of texts” which is required for achievement both in Thailand and other western contexts of education and industry.

Deng, Chen and Zhang (2014) examine the genre based approach in the EFL context in China. They note the breadth of literature describing the “acquisition of textual competence” (p. 1) but the significant gap in research around “generic competence” (p. 1). Their research targets a “process genre approach” (p. 10) which encourages students to focus on “purpose and form of one genre as they undergo the recursive processes of prewriting, drafting, revision, and editing” (p. 10). Yi (in Ling, Ho, Meyer, Varaprasad and Young, 2003, p. xiv) highlights the importance of English competency for administrative and academic achievement in Singapore and China and that many students educated within a structural grammar framework in school EFL programs are “strong in grammar but very weak in … writing continuous prose”. The approaches outlined in this research from an intensive English centre in Singapore resemble a genre based approach in encouraging students to use learning diaries, emails and children’s literature to improve their competency in spoken and written English.

3) A critical appraisal of the relevance of the genre-based approach to language learning classroom practices.

The fundamental question to answer in assessing the relevance and usefulness of genre-based approaches to English language learning is: Does the genre-based approach foster generic competence? Generic competence is defined as “the ability of applying genre knowledge in L2 and EFL contexts (Bhatia, 1993, 1999, 2004 in Deng, Chen and Zhang, 2014, p. 27).

The wide ranging success of the genre-based approach to linguistic instruction and its adoption into state sanctioned curriculum in Australia (Ahn, 2012, p. 2) is a testament to its effectiveness. A major appeal of the genre based approach to learning English is that it encourages and scaffolds competency in analysing and composing English at the level of the whole text (Kongpetch, 2003, p. 78). This is a significant limitation of the structural approach, which can have a somewhat narrow focus on word, clause and sentence level grammar (Payaprom, 2012, p. 10) or isolated passages of text (Thornbury, 2002, p. 71). The genre based approach allows students of English to apply grammatical knowledge learned in the classroom to real world contexts; thereby gaining access to communities of discourse, especially academic and institutional areas, as they are learning communicative competence through actively engaging with texts that are used in those fields. Deng et al., (2014, p. v) asserts the significant impact that prior knowledge of genre structures has had on ELL’s and the focus on English competence in professional and academic areas in China. Perez-Llantada (2009, p. 42) noted that the cementing of theoretical knowledge into real world contexts helped improve the ability of their students to apply grammar cross-context. Gibbons (in Thornbury, 2002, p. 5) suggests that not only do students benefit from studying texts but asking students to create their own texts further develops their mastery and generic competence.

The major disadvantages of this theory outlined in the literature include length and complexity of texts; particularly narrative forms. Rufenacht, McCarthy and Lamkin (2011, p. 291) explore the appropriateness of fairy tales as texts for ESL learners and conclude that many of the tales are much longer than traditional ESL texts. Another disadvantage is that the genre-based approach applies more in practice to written rather than spoken forms (Christie, 2013, p. 14), which requires teachers to use other forms of instruction to develop students’ generic competence in spoken English. This theory certainly has speaking or listening within its scope, (Halliday and Hasan, 1985, p. 69) if explicit instruction in these text types was included, but this is not widely reflected in recent literature.

The issue of power and who it rests with is always a concern when dealing with language. Rosen (2011) criticises the rigid application of textual structures in the genre-based approach and asserts that education owns the texts; while pupils constantly fail to attain the perfect example of the genre. Derewianka (2003 in White et al., 2015, p. 260) also raises this criticism; she recommends that text type exemplars should be used only for guidance. Christie (2013, p. 18) asserts that the way to deal with power imbalances is to make explicit and challenge the imbalances in the language with which texts and disciplines are constructed. “[A]ny genre should be analysed and discussed in terms of its meanings, its language patterns and its overall structure, all of them involved in achieving its social purposes”. White et al. (2015) and Ahn (2012), however, allude to the huge scale of the power imbalance issues in English language learning. They assert that the aim of the genre-based approach is “redressing linguistically based inequality” (White et al, 2015, p. 268) while criticising the fact that it can assert the dominance of the English speaking culture at the expense of the students own (Ahn, 2012, p. 9). The conclusion to be drawn here is that, while a genre-based approach creates a space for the close examination of questions about why certain texts are regarded as “canonical” (Christie, 2013, p. 13), it still exists within a dominant western cultural discourse and with that comes inherent power imbalances.

4) Personal Statement

A genre-based approach to language learning is most relevant in the New South Wales secondary school mainstream English class. This approach is inherent in the text based nature of the syllabus, and the heavy focus on literary analysis that is required of all students, especially in Stage 6 (Board of Studies, 2007). The NAPLAN examinations (see http://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/the-tests.html), are the product of a surge of political interest putting pressure on teachers and students to revisit more traditional forms of grammar instruction (Thwaite, 2015, p. 2). They still reveal, however, a functional approach, by requiring students to write an extended piece in a specific text type for a specific purpose. EAL/D students are not exempt from this.

A challenge with writing a literature review on this topic is the consistent overlapping between the concept of genre in literary studies and the concept of genre in linguistics (Swales, 1990, p.36); which occurs as a daily reality when teaching EAL/D students in mainstream class rooms. An area for future focus is a renewed concentration on the issues of power inherent in the text choices that I and the syllabus prescriptions make for students, in order to challenge and destabilise those imbalances. “By all means, then, let us empower the children in our schools, and let us always start with a principled focus on the fundamental resource they use to live and to learn: their language” (Christie, 2013, P. 20).